THE Output of conjurers on the Continent of Europe was kept down by the warfare that was raging in every part of Europe. Although the Continental conjurers probably surpassed their English confrères during the eighteenth century, during the early part of this century only a few names have come down to us.

In 1713 Frangois Chandéri, known as Siamois, showed the "Cups and Balls" at the fairs of Paris. An earlier performer of whom we have some detailed information was one who called himself Le Paysan de Nort'-Hollande, who probably, from his title, was a Dutchman. He performed in Paris between 1746 and 1753, and his advertisements seemed to prove that he was a fairly representative conjurer.

His performance at the fairs of Saint-Germain in 1747 included a "Philosophical Flower Pot", in which he raised trees that grew in the presence of the audience and became covered with foliage. This in turn disclosed the ripe fruit, which was tasted by the spectators. This is very like the trick that Fawkes was doing some years before.

The Peasant also did wonders with live animals, fire and water, various liquids, foreign birds, all kinds of metals, and eggs and milk. He also transformed a chosen article into a bird or animal, restored a dead bird to life, and made a ring dance in a goblet--a trick afterwards presented by Pinetti. He showed, too, a performing bird, and an Indian figure which appeared to be alive. This was probably an automaton akin to Balducci's "Black Moor" and Pinetti's "Little Turk".

Four years later, in 1751, we again hear of the Peasant at the same fair, but with a new programme which included the old trick of killing a pigeon by stabbing its picture or shadow, a roasted fowl restored to life, the magical growth of herbs, a message in the egg, passing a ring into a nest of boxes, magical lighting of candles, and the disappearing bird and cage, which was probably a misnomer for a cage in which a bird appeared on command, and should not be confused with De Kolta's disappearing cage. The Peasant also advertised the fact that he gave lessons.

De Lisle, a Frenchman, was also of this period, and was cooking omelettes in hats in 1749.

Billard advertised an extensive programme of the fair of Saint-Germain in 1748, and had no fewer than 200 tricks in his repertoire.

Garnier, otherwise Le Menteur (a liar), conjured between 1750 and 1765, and made a speciality of cards, cups and balls, mechanical figures, and marionettes. There was also Angelo and Haran, whose apparatus was destroyed by fire at the fair in 1762.

In Germany and Poland during the early part of the eighteenth century the best-known performer seems to have been Joseph Froelich, or Frolig. He was Court conjurer and Court fool to two Electors of Saxony. We also hear of Tomoso Peladine, who exhibited in Berlin about 1747. He did a decapitated bird trick, and changed a card into a bird.

Italy has been credited in certain quarters as being the birthplace of the modern conjurer, owing to the arrival in France, in the middle of the eighteenth century, of such Italian performers as Jonas, Androletti, and Antonio Carlotte. Of these three, one was really a Dutchman, or German.

The Treaty of Paris in 1763 brought the Seven Years War to an end. The subsequent peace gave an impetus to conjuring and rendered possible the interchange of exponents between the various nations, and was more probably the cause of the boom than anything created in Italy.

England was open now to Continental performers, who took full advantage of the opportunity, and evidently found it a rich hunting-ground, for they came again and again.

Palatine was one of the first to arrive in London. In 1763 he exhibited there with pigeons, oranges, cards, and handkerchiefs. He swallowed knives, forks, punch-ladles, and candle-snuffers. He performed in London on and off until his death in 1791, his most celebrated trick being the cutting of a ruffle from a gentleman's shirt and in a few moments restoring it. There was also an amusing contest of skill between Palatine and a Frenchman named Boulevard in 1788 at Bristol.

The earliest French conjurer to gain prominence was Nicolas Philippe Ledru, born 1731, known as Comus, and he was quoted a skilful performer in 1762, when he had booths in the fairs of Paris. He exhibited, among other things, an automaton which selected and put on clothes indicated by the spectators; also a little figure the eyes of which changed colour to correspond with those of the onlookers who gazed at it, one at a time, and brought about this sympathetic change. There was also an artificial hand which wrote the thoughts of the spectators.

The "writing hand trick" probably depended upon the use of sympathetic ink, and the hand which appeared to write was only to help the illusion. The answers were written in invisible ink on prepared sheets of paper--questions selected by the spectator, and the paper with the corresponding answer being placed under the hand in a glass case--and as the pen held in the hand moved, it pressed upon a roller impregnated with a liquid which brought out the writing. A hundred years later a similar effect was produced by adapting a mirror principle used by Tobin in his Sphinx illusion, which enabled a wonderful writing hand to be shown at the Polytechnic in Regent Street, and elsewhere in London.

In 1765 Comus came to town and established himself in Panton Street, Haymarket. He had a great success, and was enabled to extend his fortnight's visit to one of several months.

The Gentleman's Magazine for May 1766 records: "The Sieur Comus, during his stay here, has by his dexterity acquired no less than £5,000, most of which he will carry off with him." It is not surprising that he returned the next year, and again in 1770, to a city of such fabulous wealth.

Later on Comus performed at Cockspur Street, and later still near Exeter 'Change in the Strand. The entertainment given by Comus consisted chiefly of mechanical pieces, such as "The Learned Mermaid", "The Enchanted Clock", "Perpetual Magnetic Motion", and some sort of second-sight performance.

Philadelphus Philadelphia, whose real name was Jacob Meyer, was a follower of Comus, and made a great reputation on the Continent. His performance included a magic inkstand, which yielded inks of any colour desired; also a barrel which converted water into wine.

In 1766 there lived in Houndsditch, London, a popular performer, Philip Jonas, who was reputed to be an Italian, but more likely was a German. He performed at inns and tea-gardens, and at his residence. Jonas's advertisement gives no clue as to the style or manner of his performance. One, however, announces the cutting off of a pigeon's head through its shadow. This was done 250 years before.

When Philip Breslau came to England between 1760 and 1765, Jonas, retired from active conjuring, and in 1780 he was conducting a moneylending business in London, doubtless a more profitable occupation than conjuring.

Breslau's exhibition was held at No. 1 Cockspur Street in 1772, two doors away from Christopher Pinchbeck's clockmaking shop. He successfully performed there for nine seasons, usually half the week. On other nights he performed at various taverns in the City, such as the "King's Head" near the Mansion House, at Marylebone Gardens, and other places. It can be gathered from a bill Of 1777 that his programme included the new "Sympathetic Bill", "Magical Clock", and experiments in pyramidical glasses. This latter was the transposition of glasses of wine and water by covering them with cones or pyramids. In 1778 he began to add other attractions to his programme, such as a bird imitator, and some Italian musicians. On one bill he announced an exposé given in the interval in the following words:

Mr. Breslau will discover the following deceptions in such a manner that every person in the company will be capable of doing them immediately for their own amusement: First, to tell any lady or gentleman the card they fix on, without asking any questions. Second, to make a remarkable piece of money to fly out of any gentleman's hand into a lady's pocket handkerchief at two yards distance. Third, to change four or five cards in any lady or gentleman's hand several times with different cards. Fourth, to make a fresh egg fly out of any person's pocket into a box on the table, and immediately to fly back into the pocket.

In 1780 Breslau moved to a great room in Panton Street, where the French performer had exhibited "Les Ombres Chinois". Here he presented a varied programme under the high-sounding title, "A New Stereographical Operation", and his Enchanted Pixies, Militica, together with various card deceptions. He also announced his readiness to give lessons in conjuring. A year later he was giving a thought-reading exhibition, and undertook to do it without the assistance of speech or writing.

There seems a little doubt as to the correct date of Philip Breslau's death. The Gentleman's Magazine for November 1783 announces the death in Brussels of Mr. Breslau, the noted conjurer. On the other hand, there was an announcement in Liverpool in 1803 of the death of Breslau, the celebrated conjurer, aged 77. This probably referred to another performer.

A little book containing a few simple tricks was subsequently published under the title of Breslau's Last Legacy, Breslau probably had nothing to do with it, and it may have been a speculation of a bookseller. Ten editions appeared in as many years. The 1792 edition of this book credits Breslau with the trick of pulling off a person's shirt, which was a special item of Pinetti's entertainment.

Neither Gustavus Katterfelto nor Cagliostro was a conjurer in the true sense of the word, and they might be more correctly described as "quacks". Although they both used some of the tricks of conjurers, they used them only for the purpose of selling their remedies, which were "cure-alls", although Katterfelto claimed to have invented the useful Phosphorus match, then a novelty. He was a first-class showman and a bold advertiser. Another of his claims was the invention of the famous gun trick. Anyway, he was probably the first entertainer to do the trick in this country. In his advertisement of March 1781 he announces he will demonstrate the "art of gunnery". "Any gentleman may load his gun with powder and ball; he will fire at a glass without breaking the glass."

Bernard, too, flourished about this time at the Paris fairs in 1769. He used to make a speciality of vanishing a child before the eyes of the crowd outside his booth.

Then there was Rupana, the Venetian, who was in Paris in 1776; Brann, a German, who was in London the same year; and Ambroise, who performed in Paris, 1775. Also there may be mentioned Pelletier (1762-8), Perrin (1785-9), Paulmier (1789), and Bouthoux de Lorget. The last named gave an entertainment in Paris lasting two hours and a half. Still another French conjurer, Noel, who possessed a sympathetic lamp which went out when a candle was extinguished by one of the audience and a gun that fired at any desired moment.

There was a remarkable family of conjurers in Holland, founded by Eliazar Bamberg, 1760-1833, who chiefly exhibited automatons. Eliazar was followed by his son, David, his grandson, Tobias, and his great-grandson, David Tobias, who was Court magician to Holland until he died in 1914. His eldest son, Theodore, still carries on under the name of Okito, and has performed all over the world, and was even in this country quite lately. His home is in the United States, and he has a son who has already appeared as a conjurer, so there are six generations of conjurers in this one family.

The most famous conjurer who figured in the second half of the eighteenth century (as Fawkes did in the first hall) was Pinetti, who had a European reputation. He was supposed to have been born in Tuscany about 1750, and to have been the son of a village innkeeper. He even outdid Cagliostro in the royal display of rich costumes, and in the style he went about the city. Four magnificent white horses drew his carriage, and he was often taken for a prince. When the King of Prussia saw his sentries salute this personage, overcome by the display, he promptly gave him twenty-four hours to get beyond the frontier.

Pinetti was first brought to public notice in Germany about 1780. In the winter of 1783 he reached Paris, where he quarrelled with a lawyer named Henri de Cremps. The cause of the quarrel is not known, but it is inferred De Cremps invented some magical feat and had shown it to Pinetti who had been dishonest enough to appropriate it as his own invention. Pinetti, for a dozen years or more, was undoubtedly the most successful conjurer on the Continent.

The following account of his performance is translated from Les Memoires Secrets, dated January 1st, 1784:

M. Pinetti's tricks are varied and surprising, and although he is a foreigner, and not very familiar with our language, he succeeds in pleasing our audiences, which have included many personages of high rank. His best trick is a small golden head, about as large as a nut, which on being placed in a glass and covered by a silver lid answers by its motion any questions addressed to it. The device which the conjurer called Le Bouquet Philosophique is a plant made of small branches of an orange tree with fresh and natural leaves; he puts it under a crystal shade, sprinkles it with a few drops of some special liquid, and the leaves unfold, flowers appear, and, finally, fruit. The illusion is excellent. He next shows a new pack of cards and requests the spectators to think of several cards. The pack is placed in a small silver box, open at the top and supported on the neck of a bottle, which has been examined by the audience. The apparatus is put on an isolated table, and when the conjurer commands, the chosen cards jump from the pack. A canary is taken from an egg and made to appear dead and alive. He cuts off the head of a live pigeon by an electric shock, which appears to be communicated through a strip of ordinary paper. He performed fifty, a hundred, even a thousand tricks which one cannot describe, and he promises a still greater marvel--an artificial canary that warbles tunes. M. Pinetti stays in view of the audience during all his experiments, and it is hard to discover how he effects communication between himself and the various articles he presents for their entertainment.

In the autumn of 1784 Pinetti came to London and appeared during the winter season at the Little Theatre in Haymarket, where, it will be remembered, the "bottle conjurer hoax" was perpetrated. De Cremps' enmity took the form about this time of publishing a book which purported to be an exposure of the tricks then presented by Pinetti. This was called La Magie Blanche Devoilée. In 1785 he published a supplement to La Magie Blanche Devoilée, and an English edition appeared in the same year. This included both books, and was called The Conjurer Unmasked. A further supplement was issued in 1786 under the title of Testament de Jérôme. In this De Cremps lays down several maxims for conjurers which are as important to-day as in his time:

Never say beforehand what you are going to do. Always have several methods of producing an effect. Never repeat a trick at the request of a spectator; do not refuse to do so, but do the trick in another way. Do not confine yourself to one class of tricks, mingle sleight-of-hand with tricks depending upon confederacy, scientific principles, or the use of apparatus. Misdirect your audience as to the means you are employing--make them think an apparatus trick is done by sleight-of-hand, and vice versa. Redress your old tricks when you cannot invent new ones. Do not claim supernatural powers when performing to educated people. Never perform until you have carefully prepared your moves and patter. Take advantage of all chances that may offer themselves to enhance your mysteries.

Towards the close of the eighteenth century a conjurer's repertoire consisted of the stock tricks, such as cups and balls, beads on cord, decapitation tricks. The "rising cards" was an advance on what had previously been done with cards, and jumping coins, eggs, rings, etc., were popular favourites.

Pinetti was one of the first to introduce a lady in an elementary second-sight performance. She was seated in one of the front boxes with a handkerchief over her eyes and guessed at everything imagined and proposed to her by any person in the company. Pinetti also made a great use of the automata. He had a rope dancer automaton about the size of a man; also the "new, truly most superb, majestic, amazing, also seemingly incredible, grand spectacle of the Venetian beautiful Fair, which mechanical figure, being altered in character, holding the balance in hands, dances and exhibits upon the tight rope with unparalleled dexterity and agility, and in a manner far superior to any exhibited by the most capital professors, almost difficult and prodigious feats of activity, leaps, attitudes, equilibriums, antics, etc., absolutely beyond imagination and proper description". This most modest announcement heralded the automaton rope dances, which are often seen in Paris, but are more novel to English audiences.

Here is a newspaper report of Pinetti's first appearance in London:

On Tuesday evening Signor Pinetti's reputation received a considerable wound in the failure of two of his most capital manoeuvres, particularly that of firing a nail through a card, which he attempted twice and was unsuccessful. In consequence of the second disappointment he had the temerity to run up and fix the card to the back scene. The imposition was too palpable, and met with a general mark of disapprobation. He was so much dispirited at the event that at the end of his performance his interpreter came forward and told the audience that Pinetti was very unwell and did not know when he should perform again. Notwithstanding which, candour obliges us to acknowledge that several of his deceptions were truly pleasing and wonderful. The programme as presented by Pinetti contained feats of most of his contemporaries, such as, the cut and restored handkerchief; a card burnt, and found afterwards in a gentleman's watch in miniature form; the writing on paper found in a selected candle; dancing eggs; naming cards while blindfolded; a ring fired from a pistol found tied to the neck of a dove in a previously empty box; a smashed and restored watch, etc. He also did several escapes from ropes and fetters, and created much astonishment by the "thumb tie trick", which seems only to have been performed by him up to that time.

And there was also the hundred-years-old trick of removing a man's shirt without taking off his coat. Pinetti gave away this trick in the book which he sold at the entertainments.

Pinetti appeared again in Paris in 1785, and from there resumed his Continental tours. After touring France, Germany and Italy, he reached Naples in 1796, where he met Edmond de Grisy, a French aristocrat who escaped to Italy during the French Revolution and at this time was practising as a physician in Naples. De Grisy was a popular amateur conjurer, performing on occasions to the highest circles of Neapolitan society.

Pinetti became jealous of this gifted amateur, and, determining to get rid of him, played a trick upon him that made him look foolish in public. This resulted in De Grisy becoming a professional conjurer and vowing revenge on Pinetti. He began at once to take the business seriously, learning all Pinetti's tricks, and in many cases improving upon them. Then he followed Pinetti on his tours as often as possible, anticipating the visits of Pinetti to the towns, until Pinetti finally left Italy for Russia, where he died in the year 1800.

A tragic happening in De Grisy's life was the accidental killing of his own son during a performance of the gun trick. He was arrested and sentenced to six months' imprisonment. When he was released he found his wife had died. He was alone in the world and penniless, but managed to get together a small collection of apparatus, making a very poor show indeed after the splendid display he had been in the habit of giving. He took the name of Torrini, which was his wife's maiden name, and started travelling through France in a caravan. Here he met a young lad to whom he taught some tricks, and who later on became the famous Robert Houdin. De Grisy ended his career in Lyons about 1828, where he died.

Oliver was a performer who flourished in France for some thirty years about 1790. He seems to have done the same tricks as Pinetti and De Grisy, in addition to some special coin tricks of his own invention.

One of the best known French performers was Comus II. He was in England in 1793, where he remained for nearly two years, having a room on the first floor of No. 28 Haymarket. His programme was of a very flowery nature, and ended with the "grand magical house of pyramidical glass machineries, an operation never attempted by any other man living, and will astonish every beholder". He also had an enchanted Sciatericon and a Pexidees Literarium, to say nothing of a Capromancie and a Deceptio Ovorumam--very imposing, but not very illuminating.

Linski, a German conjurer, became well known on the Continent at the close of the century. He ended with a terrible tragedy in the year 1820. He was doing the gun trick at Arnstadt, and his wife was killed owing to a real bullet being left in the gun.

Castello was a performer who offered to eat a live man as an attraction. On a volunteer presenting himself, Castello made elaborate preparations; if these didn't frighten the man away, he would bite him in the neck, which usually caused the man to leap off the stage, whereupon the conjurer expressed his regret for the disappointment of the audience.

The principles of science were now coming into use amongst conjurers. The first attempt to use the principles of optics for an entertaining purpose was made by a Belgian optician, who in 1784 astonished his friends and neighbours by raising ghosts, using a magic lantern.

Gaspard Roberts, who called himself Robertson, made this the basis of a public illusion entertainment. After spending nearly ten years of work on his apparatus, he opened his ghost show in Paris in 1794. It was principally worked by a movable projecting lantern and awesome figures painted on glass slides projected on to a screen, also on to clouds of smoke emerging from braziers. This entertainment was given at the Pavillon de l'Exchequier. It was a great success, and later on was moved to a disused chapel. This was approached by corridors of tombs and other monuments, which helped to produce the weird atmosphere necessary. The interior of the chapel was draped in black, and the only light came from a single lamp burning with pale flame.

Robertson came forward and gave a sort of lecture on sorcerers, claimed that he was no charlatan, but could raise the dead. He asked the audience the names of their dead relatives and produced apparitions of them; during this the single lamp went out, while a storm with thunder and lightning took place, and a church bell solemnly tolled, music was heard, and a ghost appeared. This weird performance of Robertson's was given for six years with an enormous success in Paris and other large cities.

"Phantasmagoria" was the title given to Robertson's entertainment. He also exhibited very curious scientific experiments. In 1796 he originated the "Invisible Girl" apparatus, whereby questions whispered into a horn attached to a hanging glass box were answered by an invisible woman. Robertson's show was copied extensively. England and France, too, produced many ghost-raisers, but Robertson himself after 1800 turned his attention to the development of ballooning. He died in Paris in 1837.

The best exhibition of "Phantasmagoria" was given in this country in 1802 by De Philipsthal and Moritz. Sir David Brewster gives a description of this show in his letters on "Natural Magic".